Alex Balogh
Mr. Shapiro
May 1st, 2013
Extraordinary Man Theory in Crime and Punishment
In Fyodor
Dostoyevsky’s world-renowned novel Crime
and Punishment, Dostoyevsky explores the inner thoughts of a criminal by
providing insight into the mind of the novel’s protagonist, Raskolnikov, after
committing the most horrendous of all crimes- murder. Dostoyevsky addresses the
idea of redemption through both physical and (especially) mental suffering.
Throughout the course of the novel, Raskolnikov’s overbearing amount of guilt
is extremely evident. This is most likely due to the fact that Dostoyevsky primarily
focuses on the way the murders force Raskolnikov to deal with his tormenting
sense of guilt, rather than focusing on the actual consequences of committing murder.
By elaborating on Raskolnikov’s self-inflicted punishment rather than his
imprisonment, Fyodor Dostoyevsky suggests the idea that one’s true punishment
serves as the psychological downfall that results from battling his or her
guilty conscience, and this itself is significantly worse than trial and
imprisonment.
In order
to cope with his extreme amount of guilt, Raskolnikov attempts to justify his
vicious acts with the belief that it was what the extraordinary man would do. The
theory of the "extraordinary man" plays a vital role in Dostoyevsky’s
Crime and Punishment. At the beginning of the novel, a demoralized and
psychologically battered Raskolnikov, classifies himself as a “superhuman” and
therefore, believes himself to be exempt from the laws of ordinary men. It is
this ideology that makes Raskolnikov believe he has the right to murder Alyona
Ivanova and her innocent sister, Lizaveta.
The
extraordinary man theory that motivates Raskolnikov is derived from German
philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche’s concept of the Übermensch. According to
Nietzsche, an Übermensch (which literally
means “over man” when translated into English) is a human who has battled
modern values and overcome the flaws and weaknesses of humanity. This superhuman should have the ability to
control and create fear amongst others, causing society to either idolize or
fear them. In Friedrich Nietzsche’s 1883 book Thus Spake Zarathustra,
Nietzsche (through Zarathustra) illustrates this concept when he says:
I
teach you the Superman. Man is something that shall be surpassed. What have you
done to surpass him? All beings so far have created something beyond
themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood and even go back
to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is the ape to man? A laughing-stock,
a thing of shame. And just the same shall man be to the Superman: a laughing stock,
a thing of shame...The Superman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say:
The Superman SHALL BE the meaning of the earth! (Prologue)
When Raskolnikov was first
introduced to Nietzsche’s concept of the Übermensch, he became infatuated with
the idea of becoming extraordinary. Crime
and Punishment alludes to several historical figures as examples of
supermen. Such examples, including Napoleon, serve as role models for Rodion Raskolnikov.
Raskolnikov’s
convoluted understanding of Nietzsche’s Übermensch theory is shown through an
article he wrote as a student titled “On Crime.” This article, which, to
Raskolnikov’s surprise, was published in a magazine, argues that:
An
“extraordinary” man has…an inner right to decide in his own conscience to
overstep certain obstacles, and only in case it is essential for the practical
fulfillment of his idea (sometimes, perhaps, of benefit to the whole of humanity)…In
short, I maintain that all great men or even men a little out of the
common…must from their very nature be criminals—more or less, of course.
Otherwise it’s hard for them to get out of the common rut; and to remain in the
common rut is what they can’t submit to…Men are in general divided by a law of
nature into two categories, inferior (ordinary)…and men who have the gift or
the talent to utter a new word…The first category, generally speaking, are men
conservative in temperament and law-abiding; they live under control and love
to be controlled…The second category all transgress the law; they are
destroyers or disposed to destruction according to their capacities. The crimes
of these men are of course relative and varied; for the most part they seek in
very varied ways the destruction of the present for the sake of the better. But
if such a one is forced for the sake of his idea to step over a corpse or wade
through blood, he can, I maintain, find within himself, in his conscience, a
sanction for wading through blood—that depends on the idea and its dimensions,
note that…The first category is always the man of the present, the second the
man of the future. The first preserve the world and people it, the second move
the world and lead it to its goal (Dostoevsky 206-207).
Simply put, “On Crime” states
Raskolnikov’s opinion that the common man is a weak human being who is
incapable of controlling society. Some extraordinary people, however, are more
powerful than the common man, and it is these supermen who shall determine the
fate of society. These extraordinary men can violate the rules and laws of
society in order to refrain from becoming ordinary, and according to Raskolnikov,
this essentially gives all extraordinary men the right to commit murder in
addition other crimes. Raskolnikov’s fear of remaining ordinary and not living
up to the achievements of the idolized Napoleon drive him to murder Alyona and
Lizaveta Ivanova.
The
article displayed the immoral and corrupt side of Raskolnikov’s personality,
which made it relatively easy for others to point fingers at him when
hypothesizing whom the true killer is. For example, the article causes
detective Porfiry Petrovich to grow extremely suspicious of Raskolnikov, which
is apparent when he states “Surely you
couldn't have helped fancying yourself as an 'extraordinary' man... And, if so,
could you bring yourself…for some service to humanity… to overstep obstacles?
For instance, to rob and murder?” (Dostoyevsky 210). Raskolnikov’s immense
guilt and fear of getting caught result in his conflicting thoughts on
whether or not he truly qualifies as one of the proclaimed “super humans.”
Raskolnikov’s inability to rid himself of the guilt he feels over murdering the
Ivanova sisters is enough to prove that he is not a superhuman, but nonetheless,
Raskolnikov remains unwilling to accept the idea that he is just as average as
the rest of society. The mental breakdown that Raskolnikov faces due to his
severe guilt results in several irrational thoughts, such as the idea that by
murdering the pawnbroker, he was contributing to the greater good of society. When
discussing the murders with his sister Dunya, Raskolnikov responds angrily
towards the public’s reaction to the murders:
Crime? What crime! ...I
killed a vile, harmful louse, an old hag of a moneylender for no use to
anybody, for whose murder one should be forgiven forty sins, and who bled poor
people dry. Can that be called a crime? I don’t think about it and I have no
desire to wipe it out (Dostoyevsky 407).
In
addition, several other aspects of the novel support Raskolnikov’s failure to
“become a Napoleon” and live up to the standards of an extraordinary man. Guilt
and penance are exhibited in his character even before the murders are
committed. The simple thought of murdering the pawnbroker produces a “feeling
of intense repulsion, which had begun to oppress and torture his heart while he
was on his way to the old woman… (the feeling) had taken such a definite form
that he did not know what to do with himself to escape from his wretchedness” (Dostoyevsky
7). Raskolnikov’s aversion to his future actions does not correspond with the
idea of a superhuman. Moreover, he asks himself
“If I am so scared now, what
would it be if it somehow came to pass that I were really going to do it?”
(Dostoyevsky 3-4). Thereby indicating that because,
Raskolnikov fears the consequences of his actions, he falls into the category
of an ordinary man. In contrast, supermen do not burden themselves by fearing
the repercussions of their behavior.
Additionally, when
Raskolnikov finally follows through with his plan and murders the pawnbroker,
he is plagued by guilt causing his psychological condition to deteriorate
rapidly. Immediately after the murders, Raskolnikov falls ill. Both his physical
and mental health are on a rapid decline due to his guilt over the murders.
Raskolnikov’s judgment is even more irrational than before resulting in foolish
and inane acts, such as volunteering information to the police and claiming
that he knows who the true murderer is, forgetting to pick up his pawned items,
failing to keep his composure at the slight mention of the murders, and writing
“On Crime,” which definitely draws attention to Raskolnikov’s involvement with
the murders. The fact that Raskolnikov cannot handle the liability and guilt
that has resulted from his actions causes Raskolnikov to contemplate the idea
of confession. This further indicates that Raskolnikov completely contradicts
that of an extraordinary man. Likewise, Raskolnikov contends that an
extraordinary man must be self-reliant, depend on no one, and be able to
survive when cut off from society (Dostoyevsky 206). At first, Raskolnikov’s
pride separates him from society. After the murders, however, Raskolnikov’s
isolation takes a turn for the worse. Immediately following the murders,
Raskolnikov becomes tormented with uncertainty, responsibility, and doubt. His
beliefs and actions make it impossible to relate to others and as a result,
Raskolnikov sets himself apart from the masses. However, Raskolnikov’s
alienation contributes to his rash judgment. Unlike the depicted Übermensch,
Raskolnikov longs for companionship and acceptance. He periodically confides in
Sonya, eventually informing her of his wrongful actions because he could no
longer bear the burden that resulted from keeping the murders a secret
(Dostoyevsky 329). Sonya’s acceptance of the truth ultimately serves as a primary
motivating factor in Raskolnikov’s confession to the authorities. Her
understanding of Raskolnikov’s sins proves that the act of confession will end
his dreadful solitude and he will once again become a part of society. Raskolnikov’s
longing for communion proves that he does not fulfill his own requirements of superiority.
Other factors disproving Raskolnikov’s
extraordinariness include the fact that practically all of Raskolnikov’s ideas
are unoriginal. He admits that he often questions his actions “wondering
whether Napoleon would have done it or not” (Dostoyevsky 329). However,
constantly trying to live up to another extraordinary superhuman does not
qualify Raskolnikov as a superhuman, himself. On page 232, Raskolnikov thinks
to himself, “does Napoleon crawl under an old woman’s bed?” It is somewhat
ironic that Raskolnikov attempts to prove his superiority simply by doing what
other extraordinary men have done because trying to fit the mold of previous
supermen actually eliminates Raskolnikov from being one. In order to be
extraordinary, Raskolnikov’s ideas and motives must be genuine and original.
Copying Napoleon and other supermen of the past basically proves that
Raskolnikov does not fall into the category of “people with new ideas, people with the faintest capacity for
saying something new” (Dostoyevsky 209).
Raskolnikov states that
extraordinary men have the right to step over the laws of the common man if it
is for the purpose of benefiting society. Therefore, simply killing without a
cause does not qualify Raskolnikov as an Übermensch. His murders must serve a
true purpose, but what exactly was Raskolnikov’s motive for murder? Throughout
the novel, Raskolnikov (in addition to the reader) ponders the reasoning behind
his actions before reaching the root cause of his behavior. At first, Raskolnikov
justifies the murders by telling himself that he desperately needs the money
and that murdering Alyona Ivanova benefits society by getting rid of such a
wretched and callous person. He states, “it was simple arithmetic: to kill one
worthless, harmful, and rich being, in order to use money to make many beautiful
but poor people happy” (Dostoyevsky 54). Despite his claims, Raskolnikov’s
actions and behaviors completely oppose his reasoning. First off, the amount of
money that Raskolnikov stole was extremely small, and would not have been
enough to improve his quality of living or to make the poor happy. Furthermore,
Raskolnikov did not even use the stolen money. Rather, he buried the money and
any other stolen items to get rid of any evidence linking him to the murders.
Additionally, Raskolnikov’s claims that Alyona Ivanova was a “worthless being”
and a harmful louse that was “for no use to anybody” (Dostoyevsky 53-54) is
discredited by the amount of guilt he felt over her murder. Raskolnikov asks “what
value has the life of that sickly, stupid, ill-natured old woman in the balance
of existence?” (Dostoyevsky 84). However, if Alyona’s life really were as
worthless as Raskolnikov originally stated, he would not have felt physically
and emotionally sick after committing the crime. When Raskolnikov tries to
establish a rational explanation for his behavior, he admits to himself that,
The old woman was only a symptom of
my illness…I wanted to overstep all restrictions as quickly as possible…I
killed not a human being but a principle! Yes, I killed a principle, but as for
surmounting the barriers, I did not do that; I remained on this side… The only
thing I knew how to do was kill! And I could not do that properly either
(Dostoyevsky 233).
The
aforementioned self-confession is the first time that Dostoyevsky indicates to
the audience that Raskolnikov is finally starting to realize that he exhibits
the qualities of the common man. When Raskolnikov confesses about the murders
to Sonya, he finally dismisses the ideas that he murdered the pawnbroker to help
his mother, for the wealth, or to better society. Raskolnikov’s true motives
for murder are apparent when he states,
I wanted to murder without casuistry, to murder for my own
sake, for myself alone! …It wasn’t to help my mother—that’s nonsense—I didn't
do the murder to gain wealth and power and to become a benefactor of mankind.
Nonsense! I simply did it; I did the murder for myself, for myself alone, and
whether I became a benefactor to others, or spent my life like a spider
catching men in my web and sucking the life out of men, I couldn't have cared
at that moment...It was not so much the money I wanted, but something else...I
know it all now. Understand me! Perhaps I should never have committed a murder
again. I wanted to find out something else; it was something else led me on. I
wanted to find out then and quickly whether I was a louse like everybody else
or a man. Whether I can step over barriers or not, whether I dare stoop to pick
up or not, whether I am a trembling creature or whether I have the right...the
devil lead me on then and he has shown me since that I had not the right to
take that path, because I am just such a louse as all the rest. (Dostoyevsky 328-329).
Finally,
Raskolnikov acknowledges that he killed the Lizaveta sisters to prove that he
is extraordinary, but instead he realized that he is “just a louse as all the
rest.” By admitting that he does not qualify as an Übermensch, Raskolnikov
realizes that he does not possess superiority to the rest of society, and
therefore cannot justify contravening the law.
With Sonya’s help, Raskolnikov achieves
redemption in the epilogue of Crime and
Punishment. Sonya’s ability to love Raskolnikov unconditionally stems from
her strong Christian faith and loyalty to God. Sonya, who was forced into
prostitution in order to provide for her family, strongly believes that
everyone deserves a second chance in life and the opportunity to repent for
their sins. Although Sonya is a sinner, her belief in God helps rid Raskolnikov
of his guilt and suffering. By persuading him to confess to the authorities,
Sonya shows Raskolnikov how to atone for his sins in order to be forgiven in
God’s eyes. Before Raskolnikov’s confession, Sonya gives him a cross and tells
Raskolnikov to "stand at the cross-roads, bow down to the people, kiss the
earth for you have sinned against it too, and say aloud… ‘I am a murderer…then
God will send you life again" (Dostoyevsky 389). The cross that Sonya
gives Raskolnikov serves as an important symbol of his salvation. Although he
has not yet atoned for his crimes, the fact that Raskolnikov finally accepts
Sonya’s cross signifies that he has begun on the path towards resurrection. Before
Raskolnikov goes to the police station to confess, Sonya “made the sign of the
cross over herself and him” and informed Raskolnikov to “say at least one
prayer” (Dostoyevsky 411). Sonya embodies Christianity in the novel and on
several occasions exemplifies qualities similar to those of Jesus Christ.
Throughout the novel, Sonya makes several self-sacrifices for Raskolnikov’s
sake. In addition, her unconditional love and acceptance of Raskolnikov’s
mistakes ultimately save and reintroduce him to society. The idea that
Raskolnikov seeks redemption through Sonya and would not have achieved it
without her reveals several of Sonya’s Christ-like characteristics.
With Sonya’s wooden cross around his
neck, Raskolnikov makes his way to the police station to confess to the
murders, but on his way, Raskolnikov remembered Sonya’s words. Suddenly,
It came over him like a fit; it was
like a single spark kindled in his soul and spreading fire through him.
Everything in him softened at once and the tears started into his eyes. He fell
to the earth on the spot…He knelt down in the middle of the square, bowed down
to the earth, and kissed that filthy earth with bliss and rapture. He got up
and bowed down a second time (Dostoyevsky 413).
However, “the words, ‘I am a murderer,’ which were perhaps
on the point of dropping from his lips, died away” (Dostoyevsky 414). While
Raskolnikov acknowledges his need for redemptive suffering, his actions prove
that he still does not have enough courage to admit his mistakes. Once again,
Sonya provides Raskolnikov with strength and propels him to do the right thing.
Through his tears, Raskolnikov notices that Sonya has been following him and
…At that moment
felt and knew once for all that Sonia was with him forever and would follow him
to the ends of the earth, wherever fate might take him. It wrung his heart…but
he was just reaching the fatal place (Dostoyevsky 413).
Sonya’s
companionship serves as the driving force behind Raskolnikov’s will to confess.
When he finally tells Porfiry “I
killed the old pawnbroker woman and her sister Lizaveta with an axe and robbed
them” (Dostoyevsky 417), Raskolnikov is sentenced to eight years of hard
labor in Siberia. The images that Dostoyevsky creates portraying Raskolnikov’s time
in prison suggest that even though Raskolnikov confessed to the murders, he is still
not truly apologetic for his actions. Raskolnikov continues to believe that he
did not sin, contemplates suicide, and isolates himself from the other prison
inmates. Raskolnikov, who still bears
the burden of his extreme guilt, remains in his mental prison until he has
worked through spiritual sufferings and is ready to resurrect himself. When
Raskolnikov comes to the realization that he is in love with Sonya,
…She understood, and a light of infinite happiness came into
her eyes. She knew and had no doubt that he loved her beyond everything and
that at last the moment had come...They wanted to speak, but could not; tears
stood in their eyes. They were both pale and thin; but those sick pale faces
were bright with the dawn of a new future, of a full resurrection into a new
life. They were renewed by love; the heart of each held infinite sources of
life for the heart of the other (Dostoyevsky 429).
This is a pivotal scene in the novel because it is
the first time that Raskolnikov expresses emotion for someone other than
himself and also the first time that Dostoyevsky presents this complex
character as being truly happy. Not only do Sonya’s love, strength, and
acceptance of Raskolnikov help to reintroduce him into society, but they also
help Raskolnikov accept his guilt in order to achieve redemption…
But that is the beginning of a new story--the story of the
gradual renewal of a man, the story of his gradual regeneration, of his passing
from one world into another, of his initiation into a new unknown life. That
might be the subject of a new story, but our present story is ended
(Dostoyevsky 430).
Works Cited
Dostoyevsky,
Fyodor, and Constance Garnett. Crime and
punishment. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 2001. Print.
Nietzsche,
Friedrich Wilhelm, and Walter Arnold Kaufmann. Thus spoke Zarathustra: a
book for all and none. New York: Modern Library, 1995. Print.
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